Analysis of a history book Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Analysis of a history book - Essay Example God, according to Joshua, sent down these afflictions â€Å"to rebuke us and our posterity, and to teach us by the memory and reading of them that they were sent upon us for our sins.† (Joshua Para IV). Also, towards the end of his Chronicle he reminds the reader that he wants his writing about the events of pestilence of war to serve â€Å"as a reminder to those who endured them, and for the instruction of those who shall come after us, that, if they please, they may be enabled to become wise through these few things which I have written† (Joshua Para LXXXVI). Being a Christian, he believes that all the troubles that befell the Christian Roman Empire were caused by the sins of the people, and should serve as an illustration to St. Paul’s words that â€Å"When we are chastened, we are chastened of the Lord, that we should not be condemned with the world." (Joshua IV). His tone is similar with regards to the war that took place between the Persians and the Romans; he refers to the Persians as the â€Å"rod of God† (Para V) as they were merciless when they took over the Roman territory and ill treated the people who they captured. What is interesting is that the author does not feel that it is through any fault of the emperor Anastasius that this war was caused, who he praises as the â€Å"all-ruling and believing emperor† (Joshua Para VI). Joshua states that the war came about due to certain events in the past, which he describes in his Chronicle (Joshua Para VII-XVIII). Even when writing about the immediate precursors to war (Joshua Para XIX-XXIV), the blame, he feels squarely rests with the Persians and not the Romans. Though, of course, the fact that the people were engaged in, what he terms, sins has something to do with a reason for the outbreak of war. With regards to the war and its events, of course, he was not a party to all that

Visions for International Education Essay Example for Free

Visions for International Education Essay Klafki introduces terms like increasing interrelations, mutual dependencies, fate of all continents, cultures, states and societies when addressing the core problems our modern world faces at the turn of the century. A world, which has shrunk since the tunes of Walt Disney’s â€Å"It’s a small world after all†¦..[1]†, and in the aftermath of wars, trade and spheres of progress – appears to be closely knit. The points he makes are very clear through the discussion on 6 complexes of development, though you could look at them solitarily, they are very much intermeshed, as he points out. The entwinement of both individual capabilities and society focus, is very evident in all 6 points, be it: information availability or existential necessity. I couldn’t agree more; unfortunately conflicts exist in our own society, while promoting and claiming a route of tolerance and inclusion on one hand, we wish to be selective and limit the amount of â€Å"fugitives† we can accommodate annually, on the other. First, Klafki approaches education and educational science from a universal standing, where conditioning and development have to have common ground globally. There are many perspectives to developing knowledge and awareness and students of the future need to have an international stance to problems at a very early age. Although he tends to draw a very utopian picture, he keeps focus through his discussion with five key issues towards implementation and involvement. First key issue is â€Å"the problem of peace† and its educational value, as he addresses it, which consists of two main elements: 1. Macro-sociological and macro-political causes of threats to peace or of wars. 2. Moral justification for wars if there are any. The second key issue, he reflects upon, is that of â€Å"environment†, again globally and in conjunction to â€Å"accountability and controllability of scientific-technological development† he addresses the possible need to assist the lesser developed countries in global interest by removing blatant inequality through insight to First world knowledge. An excellent point and one very much current through efforts like movements such as â€Å"Camp for Climate Action[2]†. Klafki makes points on 3 main tasks for dealing with this global initiative towards educating the youth of tomorrow about the environment: 1. Awareness of ecological obligations and the consequences of unchecked tech-eco development. 2. Appreciation of developing energy-saving and environmentally sound consumer behavior. 3. Realization of maintaining, monitoring and further development of initiatives at an international and local level: glocal commitments. Third key issue addresses the inequality which certainly exists within societies and internationally between social classes, gender, employed/unemployed. He points out that at a national level and where the task of inter-cultural education really poses itself, is between a countrys foreign nationalities and even between them and the native population. The fourth key issues, as he puts it, are threats and opportunities amidst a vast and evolving field of new technical control, information and communications media. These tools should be embraced critically and included in any form that can boost education, while weighing the pros and cons of their effect on the user, through both possible social consequence and media misuse. Nay to both euphoria and phobia, but involve them in furthering didactic concepts in the classroom. His fifth and final key issue is on inter-personal engagement, involvement, recognition and responsibility: I-You relationships are central and enlightenment is very much the field for this issue. Now just because we are able to agree across the board on these issues being the basis, problems are not solved, because enlightenment is simply our first global quest. We need to maintain concentration on the key issues to succeed at the international level of education and promote discussion and debate via national curricula. In fact, if we are merely able to promote the significance of these key issues, then solutions can be nationally various and toned, as long as they are based in general for those who are potentially concerned. Soundly enough we also need to address four fundamental attitudes and abilities, which can assist in our quest towards global teachings and classroom practices: 1. Ability to criticize: as well as receive by furthering a point, suggestion or solution. 2. Ability to argue: to contribute to a better-founded insight on all angles of cognition. 3. Empathy: in understanding a counterpart – even if a solution is far from the scope. 4. Networked thought: interrelationships that connect everything with everything. Even after all of these discussions, it boils down to time and teaching – planning and teams. There is a clear necessity to organise and discuss reform: 1. How should class activity be blocked for lessons? 2. Should lessons be in 45 minute intervals or 2 hours? 3. The responsibility of the teaching team and its structure: How much or how little? These are simple questions and a minute contribution which need to be addressed, if there is to be any fruitful outcome through this process. The interrelated educational principles of exemplary teaching and learning, method oriented learning, action-oriented teaching and co-operative learning, all need a more fluid approach. Mutual trust is a necessity and with a realistic approach to implementation and evaluation we are well on our way – whether it seems utopian or not.

Computers in Elementary School Classrooms :: Teaching Education Essays

Computers in Elementary School Classrooms Technology has influenced many aspects of life, but I think that it has influenced education the most. I am going to be an elementary teacher after I graduate, so I thought this would be a perfect opportunity to learn how computers will help me to teach. I will be focusing on how technology influences the development of young children. Today the computer has worked its way into the classrooms of our elementary schools. To some this may seem a little early to start teaching children about technology, but the studies prove that the computer is a productive learning tool. Children learn to use the computer at an early age by interacting with their parents and other adults. Children can listen to books being read, learn about the alphabet, numbers, sizes, colors, and shapes. They enjoy learning new things while using the computer. It is fun and gives them a sense of accomplishment because they are doing it by themselves. New opportunities for young children often increase their understanding of how the world works. The early years are the most important to provide a solid base for learning in the future. Each aspect of learning has to connect with the experience of the child’s life. The computer also has to connect with what the child is learning throughout the curriculum of school. Computers help children learn about new things that can enhance their development. The computer alone doesn’t cause the learning, but it helps the teacher to facilitate learning. [1]â€Å" The National Education Goals Panel identified five essential dimensions of early development and learning: physical well- being and motor development; social and emotional development; approaches toward learning; language development; and cognition and general knowledge.† They say that the computer can facilitate development in all of these areas. The first one I want to talk about is physical well-being and motor development. The National Education Goals Panel says that children must make use of their entire bodies and the environment surrounding them. This means that they must make a connection between the relationships of other things and the environment. Children can play and explore new ideas using the computer. This gives them an opportunity to look things up that they don’t understand, so that they can make the connection between things. Computers in Elementary School Classrooms :: Teaching Education Essays Computers in Elementary School Classrooms Technology has influenced many aspects of life, but I think that it has influenced education the most. I am going to be an elementary teacher after I graduate, so I thought this would be a perfect opportunity to learn how computers will help me to teach. I will be focusing on how technology influences the development of young children. Today the computer has worked its way into the classrooms of our elementary schools. To some this may seem a little early to start teaching children about technology, but the studies prove that the computer is a productive learning tool. Children learn to use the computer at an early age by interacting with their parents and other adults. Children can listen to books being read, learn about the alphabet, numbers, sizes, colors, and shapes. They enjoy learning new things while using the computer. It is fun and gives them a sense of accomplishment because they are doing it by themselves. New opportunities for young children often increase their understanding of how the world works. The early years are the most important to provide a solid base for learning in the future. Each aspect of learning has to connect with the experience of the child’s life. The computer also has to connect with what the child is learning throughout the curriculum of school. Computers help children learn about new things that can enhance their development. The computer alone doesn’t cause the learning, but it helps the teacher to facilitate learning. [1]â€Å" The National Education Goals Panel identified five essential dimensions of early development and learning: physical well- being and motor development; social and emotional development; approaches toward learning; language development; and cognition and general knowledge.† They say that the computer can facilitate development in all of these areas. The first one I want to talk about is physical well-being and motor development. The National Education Goals Panel says that children must make use of their entire bodies and the environment surrounding them. This means that they must make a connection between the relationships of other things and the environment. Children can play and explore new ideas using the computer. This gives them an opportunity to look things up that they don’t understand, so that they can make the connection between things.

Nancy J. Chodorow :: Biography

Personal Background Chodorow is often appointed as a leading theorist in feminist thought, especially in the field of psychoanalysis and feminist psychology. Her essays are included in many books concerning gender roles and construction as well as psychoanalysis. Her evaluations of the ways in which the psychological dynamics of the gender system is systematically generated and subject to historical change and development are acknowledged as significant contributions to feminist theory. Chodorow is now at the University of California at Berkeley, and she continues her Education and Training She graduated from Radcliffe College in 1966, she earned her PhD in sociology from Brandeis University and received her psychoanalytic training at the San Francisco Psychoanalytic Institute. She then received her PhD from Brandeis University in 1975. Major Contributions Chodorow begins her experiences with challenging psychoanalyst none other than Sigmund Frued. His ambition for psychoanalysis led him to his first methods and theories. These methods and theories are as followed; Oedipus complex, dream analysis and his understanding of sexuality and psychopathology. Nancy was inspired by the psychology of women contributions of the 1920’s and 1930’s. Frued’s Oedipus pivots an entire legacy of Nancy’s curiosity of mother-daughter psychology, and which led Frued (1931) to redefine the psychology of feminity. As Chodorow was influenced by the influencing psychoanalysis in the 1930’s, she realized that psychological anthropology (her own subspecialty) had explored the psychology of gender culture. Chodorow’s first women’s conference in 1969 is what propelled her and other women into awareness. â€Å"Being and Doing† was Chodorow’s first published book which contained a cross-cultural examination of the socialization of Males and Females (1972). Its main focus was that sexism is political, economic, familial institutions in terms of men’s behavior toward women. Chodorow explains that â€Å"Being and Doing† located the men’s origin of male dominance in men’s dread of women and fear of their own external feminity. Surprisingly, Chodorow found that male and female bisexual identifications were asymmetrical; the man’s being more threatening. (Chodorow, 2004). The book concluded that women’s identity was based on â€Å"being† and men’s masculine identity was based on â€Å"doing.† â€Å"Being and Doing† was published over 30 years ago and inadvertently anticipated many of themes that are now found in psychoanalytic rethinking of feminity. At this point in time Chodorow insists to take an intuitive and natural mode; beginning with a single, self-evident, taken-for granted but previously unnoticed or unstudied feature of psychic or culture world and expand the consequences of the fact from within the clinical moment (Chodorow, 2004).

Environmental Analysis Paper Essay

Hospitality is one of those lines of business paths that are widespread. In Australia, Brisbane hotel provides a broad assortment of properties-budget, trade, tourist, lavishness, bed and breakfasts and apartments lodging. Moreover, Holiday City Brisbane hotels offer comfort, excellence and enormous worth for the money, perfect for leisure time and commerce travelers. This paper seeks to examine the environmental analysis of Brisbane hotel in Australia. (Higham, 2005, p. 98) 1. Industry Analysis On the foundation analysis unaccompanied, Brisbane market appears to be a suitable market for an augment in lodging supply. On the other hand there are a number of other considerations such as access to capital, augmented building and labour outlay. (Addis, 2006, p. 103) Brisbane is situated on the eastern coast; it is the capital of Queensland-Australia’s head of state tourist area. It is Australia’ best ever growing city region in South East Queensland and occupies 1,140 square kilometers. (King, 1997, p. 88) For a property shareholder, a significant indicator of hotel viability will be value versus building cost. Hotel values have not kept rate with the enlargement in building costs. See more: how to write an analysis of a research paper Hotel values sky rocketed in 1997 before moribund to a cyclical low of $161K per room in 2001. Building costs on the other hand have augmented each year, moribund only marginally in 2001 in reaction to the worldwide financial downturn. (Garling, 1991, p. 100) The low point of hotel values were 62 per cent of building costs and even as they have augmented by around 10 per cent per annum over the last five years double the rate of building costs, the expansion gap is still 20 per cent at present. This gap will differ across the cities of Australia. (Kohen, 1995, p. 90) The porter’s five forces model is a straightforward tool that supports premeditated understanding where authority lies in an industry situation. It also helps to comprehend both the strength of Brisbane existing cutthroat position, and the potency of a position Brisbane is in search to move into. Regardless of the fact that the five force structure focuses on commerce concerns rather than community policy, it also emphasizes comprehensive rivalry for value to a certain extent than just competition amongst existing rivals. (Freeland, 1968, p. 115) The innovative cutthroat forces model as projected by Porter acknowledged five forces which would impact on an organization’s performance in a cutthroat market. These include the following: (Swaffer, 2002, p. 102) i) The Degree of Rivalry The degree of rivalry, which is the most noticeable of the five forces in the hotel industry, helps decide the extent to which the value fashioned by a business will be dissolute through head to head contest. (Cunill, 2006, p. 78) Perth has overtaken Brisbane as Australia’s number one hotel bazaar after having strengthened its bazaar leader position all through each quarter during 2007 to record the uppermost Revenue Per Available Room (RevPAR) expansion, highest ADR expansion and uppermost tenancy result (82. 5%) for the full year. (Richards, 2006, p. 120) Hotel section analysis in the three main markets of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane reveal that 5-star hotels are driving the sturdy bazaar performance. All the three cities recorded twofold figure RevPAR expansion during 2007 which is higher than the lower-tier segments. (Jamieson, 2006, p. 115) ii) The Threat of Entry Both the prospective and obtainable competitors influence standard business productivity. The threat of new entrants is frequently based on the bazaar entry barriers. They can take varied forms and are used to avert an influx of firms into a business at any time profits attuned for the cost of capital goes up above zero. (Higham, 2005, p. 104) The most widespread forms of entry barriers include: economies of scale, cost of entrance such as investment into expertise; distribution channels such as ease of admission for competitors; cost compensation not connected to the size of the corporation and government legislation. (Swaffer, 2002, p. 105) In a cutthroat market, all firms fabricate a standardized product. This means the goods presented by a variety of sellers are mainly identical. Since competition is based exclusively on the price, and the merchandise is homogenous, it then follows that buyers will buy from whoever’s product is cheapest, and this is also applicable in the hotel industry in the sense that tourist will choose to check inn to a hotel which they are comfortable with the price; therefore each producers is requisite to take up the least-cost method of fabrication and all surplus profits and losses will in the long run be abolished by entrance to, or exit from the business. (Addis, 2006, p. 108) Australia is in threat of becoming a lattice exporter of tourists in 2008 as strong expansion in outbound travel outpaces inbound tourist arrivals. The recently released Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Overseas Arrivals and Departures data reveals that arrivals have exposed some revival in the primary two months of 2008 (up 1. 7%), outbound travel has augmented by a staggering 14. 5%. (King, 1997, p. 94) The major competitor of Brisbane hotel is Sydney. However this was in the past. Sydney attracts a broad range of commerce events, and these proceedings tend to be larger than regular. Whereas the National Business Events Study (NBES) establish that New South Wales hosted 27 percent of the entire meetings in Australia in 2003, this represented 40 percent of the entire delegates. In terms of standard occasion size, Sydney hosted the biggest proceedings (roughly 162 delegates per event), followed by the Gold Coast (102), Melbourne (96), Adelaide (92), the ACT (89) and Perth (80). (Jamieson, 2006, p. 123) Nevertheless, this position is being windswept as other States are attracting an escalating percentage of intercontinental trade proceedings delegates. Queensland is to some extent differently positioned. Because of its chief coastal resort cities, it has key conference amenities at Cairns and the Gold Coast, as well as Brisbane. When these three locations are taken jointly, it reveals that in the mid-nineties they jointly held only about half as numerous meetings as Sydney. Ever since, their position has augmented considerably and in the epoch 2003-2005 they held about as several meetings as did Sydney. (Swaffer, 2002, p. 110) iii) The Threat of Substitutes A threat from substitutes exists if there are substitute products with inferior prices of improved performance parameters for the equivalent function. They could potentially draw a momentous proportion of bazaar volume and for this reason reduce the possible sales volume for existing troupe. This category also relates to balancing products. The threat of substitution is also influenced by switching costs such as retraining, retooling and redesigning that are incurred when a consumer switches to a dissimilar kind of product or service. (Higham, 2005, p. 111) Brisbane hotel faces the barricade of cost of setting up such as renting or owning building and licensing faced by new-fangled entrant. Even though firms in a monopolistically cutthroat market do face a low barrier to entry, the firms vend differentiated products, therefore causing new-fangled firms harder to be recognized. For example; Pier Nine Oyster Bar and Seafood Gril in Brisbane is a well-liked seafood restaurant. It then follows that a new seafood restaurant may have intricacy attracting clientele because of Pier’s recognized reputation. (Addis, 2006, p. 114) iv) Buyer Power Buyer power is one of the two level forces that control the misappropriation of the value fashioned by Brisbane hotel industry. The most imperative determinants of buyer power are the size and the attention of clientele. Other factors are the degree to which the buyers are well-versed and the attention of the competitors. (Jamieson, 2006, p. 130) Brisbane hotels come in all the shapes and sizes one would expect from Australia’s third biggest city-the enormous names like Hilton, Marriott and Sheraton are all there, all along with loads of self-governing establishments which vary from extremely quirky to absolute dirty. Similar to any bed where you relax your head, you acquire what you disburse for. Moreover, at the cheaper end of the range, a flawlessly contented room in an essential visitor hotel in the heart of the city like the Nomads will place you back about $80 a night at reserve rates, whereas a two bedroom suite in the historical 5 star Conrad Treasury Casino will cost you roughly $220 if you are looking less than two weeks ahead-which is fairly of high-quality for a five star hotel. (King, 1997, p. 101) v) Supplier Power This is a reflect icon of the buyer power. As an end result, the examination of supplier power characteristically focuses primary on the relative size and attention of suppliers comparative to commerce involvement in the inputs supplied. (Garling, 1991, p. 107) The aptitude to charge clientele different prices in line with differenced in the value fashioned for each of those buyers more often than not indicates that the bazaar is characterized by high dealer power and at the same occasion by low buyer power. (Kohen, 1995, p. 97) Brisbane hotel is an outstanding example to other main hotel markets in the steady preamble of new supply, as opposed to gesticulate of new-fangled hotel developments flooding the bazaar once the market conditions become encouraging. A slow but stable flow of new stockpile goes a long way towards sustainably increasing the market without causing occupancies and revenues to fall. (Cunill, 2006, p. 91) 2. External Stakeholders and Broad Environment External stakeholders These encompass real land agents, state visitor offices, developers, financiers, body business service providers, hotels with a strata title attention and administration human rights brokers. (Swaffer, 2002, p. 118) The assortment of community schemes is echoed in the range of lawmaking schemes that subsist across Australia. One of the basic differences across jurisdictions is the terms and lawful jargon used to explain key features in Brisbane hotel. This difficulty poses realistic problems for stakeholders in general and for practitioners who are required to function athwart state boundaries. (King, 1997, p. 117) Broad Environment This consists of four significant factors such as current social forces, global economic forces, global political forces and technological innovations. (Garling, 1991, p. 114) i) Current social forces Given that travel was a requirement for numerous workers at the turn of the century, it then follows that homosexuality action in countryside contexts and urban public spaces was inextricably associated. The features of superior population areas, clear in Brisbane hotel and larger local areas were also noticeable in lesser urban settlements. (Higham, 2005, p. 116) ii) Global economic forces Australia’s four principal city lodging markets enjoyed a record year of tenancy levels in 2007, with the outlook for 2008 being evenly as optimistic in spite of far from ideal national and worldwide market circumstances. (Kohen, 1995, p. 101) Australia Bureau of statistics (ABS) data released for the full year 2007 shows that for the initial time the internal city hotel bazaar of Brisbane has achieved tenancy levels over 80% averaged all through the year. This performance underscores Australia’s confrontation to the universal monetary slowdown as trade travel remains burly. High occupancies are also a side-effect of the capital boom, which is supporting Brisbane hotel markets as local centres for these resource-based state economies. (Addis, 2006, p. 122) With continuous expansion in accommodation demand, thanks to affluent economic environment and sturdy market essentials, Australia’s chief city markets of Brisbane will see occupancies linger high and proceeds increase. (Garling, 1991, p. 119) The majority multicultural cities are Melbourne and Sydney. Both cities are well-known for the diversity and quality of universal foods available in their many restaurants, and Melbourne particularly promoted itself as a hub for the arts therefore posing a threat for Brisbane hotel in Australia. (Jamieson, 2006, p. 134) iii) Technological innovations True commerce innovation does take place through a variety of mechanisms such as commerce strategy, organization practices, procedure alteration, and assets investment in new-fangled plant and equipment. To be familiar with this, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) by now has events of technological innovation. (Cunill, 2006, p. 103) iv) Global political forces The worldwide hotel business recorded optimistic growth in standard daily rate and proceeds per obtainable room for the month of July 2008; this is according to the statistics from Smith Travel Research (STR). Moreover, fashion hotels are an element of a speedy development in the market for lavishness recognized customer products. This was incorporated prior to the political situation that arose in Australia. (Higham, 2005, p. 121) 3. Factors that Influence the Sector’s demand and cost structures i) Technological innovation This has debatably been the leading factor in determining fiscal services of Brisbane hotel in the past two decades. Systems for dealing out, communicating and sturdy information are an indispensable element of the infrastructure sustaining fiscal activities. (Kohen, 1995, p. 112) Technology has connected markets around the globe and opened cross-border delivery of both wholesale and retail fiscal products. This has created a competitive advantage to Brisbane hotel in Australia. (Freeland, 1968, p. 119) ii) International Integration This has resulted prior to technological advances and as a result there has been a rising tendency towards international integration amongst financial markets. In numerous areas of the Australian bazaar, predominantly those connected with across-the-board funding, international markets have replaced home markets as the main source of finance. A result of globalization is that competition between fiscal service providers occurs internationally to a certain extent than at the state or local level. Globalization has spawned a production of institutional shareholders who control huge portfolios and have particular loyalty to products and state marketplace thus boosting Brisbane hotel financial status. (Swaffer, 2002, p. 125) iii) Changing customer needs Markets developments have also been fashioned by changing customer needs. In Australia, the most clear of these has been the enlargement of enforced superannuation and the accompanying enlargement in the finance administration business. This has resulted to Brisbane hotel modifying their products and services so as to satisfy the customer since the customer is the king. (Freeland, 1968, p. 121) iv) New Entrants These factors have encouraged new-fangled entrants and innovative ways of doing business. For instance, unlike a decade ago, hotels and construction societies are at present extremely aware of the competition that they face from securitizes. This has made Brisbane hotel and other industries formulate strategies of dealing with new entrants. (King, 1997, p. 126) 4. Strategic Issues facing Organizations in hotel sector i) Location Brisbane is a low-lying terrain mass positioned in a floodplain. Nevertheless, this has worked to the benefit of the hotel. Brisbane is located along the Brisbane River and is neighboring to the Great Dividing Range and the Moreton Bay. This has generated a lot of income since it serves as a tourist attraction base. (Garling, 1991, p. 122) ii) Climate Geologically, Brisbane hotel is situated contentedly in the State’s Southeast corner, at the oceanfront of the Pacific Ocean to the east. Because of this, it then follows that many inhabitants and vacationers from Melbourne and Sydney come over and expend winter in Brisbane thus boosting the hotel’s revenue. (Higham, 2005, p. 128) iii) Events and Festivals Several events and festivals have also boost up tourism in Brisbane hotel. For instance; Brisbane River Festival is usually held in the middle of September every year. In addition to this, Brisbane is becoming a well-liked sports destination in all of Australia and not just in Queensland. It has previously hosted the Commonwealth Games and Rugby World Cup and still hosted a number of events for the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. This has generated a lot of income for the Brisbane hotel. Moreover, Brisbane is proposing to support and hold the 2024 Olympics. This will generate the country lots and lots of revenue. (Jamieson, 2006, p. 136) Conclusion The event trade in Australia continues to thrive and events are more and more viewed as vehicles for the facilitation of local growth. Regions may be fashioned for various reasons, counting economic purposes, and debatably such economic purpose will decide the most suitable set of local restrictions, the types of local organizations that will be established and the kinds of local policies and programs that will be implemented. Moreover, technological innovation, international integration, changing customer needs and new entrants have contributed towards the hotel formulating strategies in order to satisfy their customers and as a result Brisbane hotel has maintained a competitive edge thus earning profitable foreign exchange from the tourists.

Essay on Educational goals and objectivesEssay Writing Service

Essay on Educational goals and objectivesEssay Writing Service Essay on Educational goals and objectives Essay on Educational goals and objectivesIn order to properly direct the process of learning, teachers need to set educational goals and objectives. Goals are more generic objectives of teaching and outline the competencies that should be mastered by students, while teaching objectives list specific abilities that the student should demonstrate after the teaching session. In other words, learning objectives refer to precise behavioral changes taking place after learning activities.Setting an educational objective involves three stages. At the first stage, it is necessary to determine the specific subject or theme to be taught. At the second stage, it is necessary to determine the characteristics of the students such as their level, number, language abilities, etc. At the third stage, it is reasonable to formulate a teaching aim and several objectives relevant for the target topic and the target students.The target topic is elementary algebra, the section devoted to linear equations a nd solving linear equations. The selected sub-topic is the introduction into linear equations and solving simple linear equations. Anticipated student audience includes English-speaking students of middle-school level. The number of students in a class is expected to be average (15-25 persons), and the level of their knowledge is sufficient. In particular, it is assumed that the students know division, subtraction, addition, multiplication, and can denote variables with letters.The general objective is the following: to understand the concept of a linear equation and to master the approach to solving simple linear equations. Specific objectives of the learning session are the following.The student should be able to identify linear equations and understand the meaning of the solution of a linear equation.The student should be able to solve equations written in the form x + a = b and x a = b.The student should be able to solve equations written in the form ax=b and x/a = b.

Housing problems and Options essays

Housing problems and Options essays Everyone needs a house. Rich people poor people; all people are included. This is a problem, because housing costs a great deal of money. Poor people that can barely afford food and clothing also have a difficult time finding affordable housing. As a result, some live in unsafe and unsanitary conditions that are badly in need of repair. As we read in several Los Angeles Times articles, there are many people here in the Valley that live in places like these, and that live way below the poverty line. Many of these unkempt dwellings reside in the inner city of large urban areas, such as Los Angeles, Philadelphia or Chicago. According to our textbook, (page 338) Poverty rates in the central city are about two times higher then the poverty rates for suburban areas. In some metropolitan areas, the differences in poverty rates are even higher. Poor people reside in the central city for two different reasons, according to discussions on various economic models from lecture. First, the farther away that you get from the central business district, the higher your transportation costs to get to your job (assuming that the job is located in the CBD). If you can not afford to commute to your work, you will be unable to keep your job, making you worse off economically. Therefore, you would chose to locate your residence close to your place of employment (closer to the CBD) in order to reduce your transportation costs. IF you live close enough to your place of employment, you may not need to use any form of transportation other then your feet, which doesnt cost you anything but your time. The second reason has to do with where new houses are built. New homes are built on land that was previously undeveloped, usually located on the outer edge of the residential district, furthest away from the central business district. The wealthiest people move into these new homes, leaving the upper middle class to move into their old r...

Escaping to Reality Fashion Photography in the 1990s by Elliot Smedley

Escaping to Reality Fashion Photography in the 1990s by Elliot Smedley Written by Elliot Smedley, â€Å"Escaping to Reality: Fashion Photography in the 1990s† explores how contemporary fashion photography is adopting realistic styles by using realistic activities contrary to ideal styles that had dominated art and photography for decades.Advertising We will write a custom book review sample on Escaping to Reality: Fashion Photography in the 1990s by Elliot Smedley specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A shift from idealism to realism has kept in tandem with current socio-economic conditions that reflect consumerism. Realistic approach to photography has enhanced fashion photography because photographs appear alive with fascinating backgrounds that appeal to sight. According to Smedley, spontaneous snapshots have realistic aesthetic value, which is critical in fashion photography because it gives greater realism and wider appeal (145). Spontaneous snapshots capture mannerism, gestures, and looks of huma ns in natural settings; thus, have greater appeal, which is praiseworthy in enhancing commercial image and promoting consumerism culture. Thus, spontaneous snapshots are valuable because they depict realistic images and activities, which are fashionable lifestyles of people in contemporary society. Through realistic approach, fashion photography can portray current themes that are in society such as culture, sexuality, social class and feminism. Photography images can depict certain cultural values and activities that a given society practices. In 1980s, fashion photography depicted women as ‘super models’ because they reflected ideal beauty that paved way for realism in 1990s. Smedley argues that realism emerged in 1990s because social class shifted from perceiving ideal models to keeping abreast with ‘spirit of the time’ that shaped fashion photography (148). Thus, realism became a dominant approach to photography because realistic styles in fashion photo graphy appealed to many people. Additionally, feminism ideology liberated women and changed their depiction in fashion imagery from being mere sexual objects.Advertising Looking for book review on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Documentary of fashion photography shows that the driving force of the fashion industry is commerce. Photographs have varied connotations that appeal to people and shape their attitudes and perceptions, thus influence tastes and preferences of people commercially. Smedley asserts that fashion photography invites people into the private world of fantasy where consumerism thrives (152). However, the emergence of realism is significantly changing the commercial influence of ideal photography in terms of consumerism. Smedley, Elliot. â€Å"Escaping to Reality: Fashion Photography in the 1990s.†Ã‚  Commonwealth of Australia, (n.d.): 143-156.

Post-occupancy evaluating of low income housing in the Kingdom of Dissertation

Post-occupancy evaluating of low income housing in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia - Dissertation Example 13 Pictures(3) Showsthe region of Ha’il, with the pleased of the project. 13 Pictures(4) Site plan of the Al-Ghazalah project 13 Pictures(5) Site plan of the Al-Ghazalah project 15 Pictures(6) Ground floor plan 15 Post-Occupancy Evaluation of Low Income Housing in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Chapter 1 Introduction Housing demand is one of the most important issues and challenges that face developing and developed countries (Al-klyfh, 2009). These countries have tried to solve their housing demands with different policies. Some policies and proposals have met the needs of different levels of society. One of these economic classes is called the low income group that encompass some Saudi Arabian people with low annual income. To address the issue on housing income, the government tried to establish residential complexes, an introductory concept and still under trial. This paper will focus on low income housing post occupancy evaluation as the main issue. The housing policy will b e assessed using the post-occupancy evaluation method (POE). However, before investigating the Saudi Arabian policy, it is important to investigate the different international policies for low income housing. 1.1. International policies for low income housing Many institutions, international agencies and local communities around the world have for many years now addressed poverty, increase standards of living,as well as provide adequate shelter for the poor (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, 1987).These UN programs were allocated in 155 countries and have established national centres that work directly with various local government agencies (Tiesdell, 2004). Important processes that have been followed are: a. Secure possession of the land. b. Provide public facilities and services. c. Finance low-cost housing d. Provision of construction materials. e. Community participation. f. Cooperation with the private sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Tiesdell, 2004) . A review of socio-economic policies indicates that there is a growing interest in the issue of housing for the poor by civil society organizations and governments of many countries. A limited review on Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom low cost housing will be included due to time constraints. 1.1.1. Affordable Housing in the UK Housing policies in Britain has local planning authorities mandate developers of housing projects to provide a certain percentage of affordable housing for low income groups (Tiesdell, 2004). The two aims are as follows: a. Social: sustain a mixed community in terms of income and social level and reduce illegal settlements that lack basic services b. Economic: shoulder part of the burden of financing in order to allow beneficiaries provided with lower prices than the market price or rent housing (social security) at less than the prevailing costs. UK housing, however, did not meet stated objectives, such as acceptance from high-income and middle classes due to preference

Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Terrorism - Essay Example I would recommend to the President to halt all such surveillance in the territory of a sovereign state, because to continue to do so will only escalate the already tense situation between the two states. If, on the other hand, this event happened over international waters, then the president should make an extremely strong statement of condemnation to the Iranian government for the provocation. Furthermore, he should warn the Iranians that if a similar action takes place again, then the United States will not only tighten the sanctions that have been placed on Iran, it might also choose to make retaliatory attacks. Perhaps by doing this, the Iranians might discontinue their unprovoked attacks, fearing the American military might. However, the President should choose his words exceedingly carefully before making such a statement, because certain words, when used, tend to make people respond in the opposite way. If he were to make a statement that sounds threatening, for example, the Iranians might instead of reacting in fear, choose to respond in defiance. This would eventually lead to a war between these two states, something that will totally destabilize the Gulf

Cultural Sensitivity Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural Sensitivity Reflection - Essay Example A culturally competent teacher knows perfectly well how to relate the skill of cultural awareness with his/her work which includes dealings with the students, parents, staff, and community members almost on daily basis. Acting in a culturally competent manner becomes especially important in a classroom as that is the place where a teacher has to deal with the students in a very direct manner. â€Å"Culturally responsive teaching does not incorporate traditional educational practices with respect to students of color† (Gay, 2000). Parents often have a hard time adjusting to the reality of teaching their children in a culturally sensitive environment. This is why teachers should take care to acknowledge cultural sensitivity when dealing with the parents of their students and they can do so by effectively bridging the communication gap in order to win the trust of the parents. When dealing with parents, a teacher should help them understand how he/she intends to use cultural refe rents to groom the students academically, emotionally, and intellectually in a culturally sensitive environment. A teacher can also relate cultural competency with his/her work when dealing with students in a classroom by deeply acknowledging the cultural heritages of various ethnic groups and regarding them. He/she should also stimulate the entire class to respect each other’s cultural heritages. There also exists a difference in the extent to which each student adapts to the learning process which is why a culturally competent and sensitive teacher should employ a variety of instructional strategies addressing different learning styles. Cultural sensitivity should be practiced whether a teacher teaches a multilingual or a monolingual class (Stubbs, 2011). Moreover, cultural sensitivity requires a teacher to instill the same sense and skill into other staff members as the learning process can never be controlled by a single teacher alone. It is the job of

Political comparison between president George Bush and president Obama Essay

Political comparison between president George Bush and president Obama - Essay Example The two presidents, former president George Bush and currently ruling president Obama, have something in common about their reign in authority. A close observation is identified in president Obama following some of the ruling of retired president George Bush and also similarities about their personal lives such as; they are both passionate in running the halls of white house with their fleecy black puppies, they are both outstanding awkward dancers, they are fond of giving ridiculously public speeches, they both promoted heavy sums to the state arrears, they both have two daughters and were both sporting in their juvenile years (Johnson 2013). This essay highlights out some of the political similarities shared by former retired president George Bush and president Obama and also features in details the conclusions to their political comparisons and their administrative future. The two heads of states shares one thing in common about the essence of immigration as witnessed when George W. Bush tried to acquire an immigration amendment through the senate in protection of the immigrants, he was objected and later declined his request by the opposition congress. Similar to President Bush, Obama wanted to protect the immigrants within his administrative power who had lived in the USA for more than five years, but he faced stiff counterargument from the republicans and the senate claiming that he was overturning the constitution and was acting more like an emperor within his stated mandates (Collinson 2014). Despite the

Population Change and Economic Growth Research Paper

Population Change and Economic Growth - Research Paper Example The instantaneous rate of growth of GDP is expressed as the sum of rates of growth of variables on the right hand side of the above equation; hence, logarithms are introduced in the equation. The rate of GDP per capita is thus expressed as: The base data for the study are taken from Statistics Canada National Income and Expenditure Accounts for GDP (available from 1961), and the population series from the Statcan (available from 1971). Both data series have been extended backwards from 1951 using "old-onto-new" splicing. The labor force source population, as defined in the labor force survey, is the non-institutional population of 15 years of age, or older. Based on the growth rate equation defined above, the data for half a century has been generated for historical analysis, and with which forecasts have been compared. Historical trends indicate that GDP growth rate was highest in 1960s touching 5.2%, and lowest in 1980s at 2.33%. The study forecasted GDP for 2001-2011 as 2.52, which is quite near to the actual of 2.7%, as reported in the World Fact Book for Canada (2008). A high GDP growth rate in 1960s is explained by the fact that baby boomers along with augmented female participation added to the workforce. During 1980s it is worth noting that both the labor workforce and employment rate declined. It is also of interest to note that the population growth along with labor force source population continued to decline since 1950s. By 1980s, the inflow of younger people joining the labor workforce and the participation rate of older people declined. The net immigration

Political comparison between president George Bush and president Obama Essay

Political comparison between president George Bush and president Obama - Essay Example The two presidents, former president George Bush and currently ruling president Obama, have something in common about their reign in authority. A close observation is identified in president Obama following some of the ruling of retired president George Bush and also similarities about their personal lives such as; they are both passionate in running the halls of white house with their fleecy black puppies, they are both outstanding awkward dancers, they are fond of giving ridiculously public speeches, they both promoted heavy sums to the state arrears, they both have two daughters and were both sporting in their juvenile years (Johnson 2013). This essay highlights out some of the political similarities shared by former retired president George Bush and president Obama and also features in details the conclusions to their political comparisons and their administrative future. The two heads of states shares one thing in common about the essence of immigration as witnessed when George W. Bush tried to acquire an immigration amendment through the senate in protection of the immigrants, he was objected and later declined his request by the opposition congress. Similar to President Bush, Obama wanted to protect the immigrants within his administrative power who had lived in the USA for more than five years, but he faced stiff counterargument from the republicans and the senate claiming that he was overturning the constitution and was acting more like an emperor within his stated mandates (Collinson 2014). Despite the

Philosophy and the Future Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophy and the Future - Assignment Example The last theory that he put forward was that a person should accept the fact of absurdism and in this way, he would lead a better life. The reason behind this is that a person knows that life has no meaning and in that way, he would live his life to the fullest. Absurdism is one philosophy which actually denies a proper meaning to life. Many philosophers have argued against this. If absurdism is a belief that is universally accepted then it can be argued that the meaning of philosophy itself is nothing because since life has no purpose then why should one actually assess its outcome and search for a way of living. Not believing in life would actually mean not believing in one’s own existence. A logical explanation to the meaning of life is essential and it must be considered. The meaning of life is one thing that a person must analyze so that he understands his own existence. It is something that a person derives from learning and knowledge. Absurdism is actually an easy way out that a person discovers when he denies his search of life. Absurdism is actually living a life of self-denial. Meaning of life can be understood on the basis of religion as is accepted by many. It can also be based upon the principles of utilitarianism which i ndicates that the purpose of leading a normal life is dependant upon the principle of happiness which indicates that a person performs those acts which would bring about the maximum happiness. Religion and utilitarianism teach a person about his own existence, about the purpose of life and the creation of a happy and healthy world. Human beings are finite beings. Despite that many philosophers have put forward the theory about the existence of God who as explained is an infinite, Supreme Being. This means that human beings definitely have the power to consider and examine the infinite being.  

Contemporary Healthcare Specific Management and Leadership Practice Essay Example for Free

Contemporary Healthcare Specific Management and Leadership Practice Essay If there is one word which describes the American health care environment during the last decade, that word is change. Professionals joining the health care industry during the 1990s will find little resemblance to the work environment their predecessors found a mere 10 years earlier. Physical therapy practice during the 1960s and 1970s was largely limited to three settings: the hospital, private practice and extended care institutions. Private practice followed the medical practice model and served primarily ambulatory outpatients. Hospital-based practice accounted for the majority of practice opportunities. Along with some limitations on professional autonomy, employment in hospital-based practice generally offered the greatest opportunities for variety in clinical practice. Literature Review Change is constant and usually affects an entire organization. Change sometimes can cause chaos and stress, but which must be acknowledged and dealt with in order to make an organization effective. Improving high-quality patient care is the most important issue for everyone in a physical health institution, and this improvement needs to remain a central focus of and the main reason for the change. Discussions with hospital executives reveal: There is a need for an action plan to meet the needs of a more culturally diversed population. Adverse patient care incidents are under-reported because there are different interpretations about what should be reported. The hospital has not been able to invest in training hospital staff on reporting requirements. There are no systematic report mechanisms in place. Further study on the case reveals that the peer review processes of the hospital are weak if not minimally compliant. The number of patient complaints about hospital care has been rising. Complaints are often complex, and may involve the hospital’s other health care facilities, and health professionals, as well. Medication errors have been a major concern for the hospital this lately. Though deficiencies were cited, the potential for patient harm was not clearly identified. Still, it has important influences on the quality of care for the medical facility. Faith also noted that their premium cost are decreasing, and is becoming a significant concern for the hospital. The lack of clear and concise ethics guidelines for medical personnel, especially on issues requiring ethical decisions. Each group of stakeholders has somewhat different concerns. That is, each cares more about some aspects of an organization’s activities and less about others. Customers. Many organizations say that they put the concerns of their customers or clients first. For U.S. companies, that often means improving the quality of the service while keeping costs in check. Interviews with the customers reveal that the health care organization’s Teamwork Competency account illustrates that using teams to improve quality is one approach that organizations can use to address the concerns of customers. Employees. Many of the concerns that employees have today reflect changes in the structure of organizations and the fact that work is a major activity in their lives. How a company treats employees during times of change is a key issue raised by this company. Pay is another area of concern to employees. The desire to receive equal pay for equal work is among the most important of workplace issues, according to a national survey of 40,000 women. Owners and Shareholders. For many organizations, the concerns of owners—that is, taxpayers and contributors—often are essentially those of society at large. But for privately owned companies, and those whose shares are publicly traded, the concerns of owners—that is, shareholders—may be quite different from those of society in general. Most shareholders invest their money in companies for financial reasons. At a minimum, they want to preserve their capital for later use. Because the job of institutional investors is to make money by choosing which companies to put their investment in, their perspective on corporate issues is to make profit generation the firm’s top priority. As professional investors, these shareholders have considerable power to influence management’s decisions. Physical therapy health care service product is a bundle of tangible and intangible benefits that satisfy patient’s needs. Factors as job design, role clarity, and autonomy affect employee attitudes, which in turn affect patient experience in the institution. These observations emphasize the need to look beyond the immediate and obvious aspects of satisfaction and to consider other aspects, which affect patient perception of their experience. In dealing with the hospital’s problems with respect to organizational processes, ethics and communication issues, it must be considered from three perspectives: structure, process and outcome. To assure that the hospital services are being appropriately provided, each dimension of hospital care provision must be considered. Quality of Life has different meanings as compared to the other health-related subject matters. It is used to describe a patient’s health status, a description of how he perceives himself and his point of view about his life.   But Quality of Life Concept encompasses more than the health status or one’s perception about self and life.   This concept analysis nursing paper serves to provide the most comprehensive definition about this concept and how it is used in medical terms at present. Quality of Life Concept has become an â€Å"impressive ‘explosive’ trend† talked about by medical field professionals, published in journals, books and various quality life articles for the last 10 years now.   Within this period, its concept continues to evolve and has reached three phases. In the first phase, there is the formal assessment made and classified as ‘physician’s judgment of the patient’s health’. In the second phase, the points of view of the patients were given focus and the tools used in the study were those applied from psycho-social fields. In the third phase, multi-dimensional questionnaires were adopted and the concept of Quality of Life and health status begin to have different meanings (Apolone and Mosconi, p.66, 1998). Today, the trend continues to evolve as patient-oriented measures are applied and studied from functional disability scales to spiritual quality of life and economic measures. It is also a lot of other possible factors that have effects on a patient’s perception about what quality of life is in relation to his health.   The patient’s point of view in quality and effectiveness is taken into consideration and is treated as a more comprehensive humanistic approach that determines what to him is quality of life (Apolone and Mosconi, p. 68, 1998). Definition of Quality of Life When we speak about quality of life in layman’s terms, it literally pertains to a number of definitions. It connotes with standard of living, available resources or conditions that tell about either the comforts or discomforts of life and such other identifiable meaning and perception about an ideal life.   There are many indicators about what quality of life a patient can perceive and most of these indicators depend variably on one’s cultural values. Defining Quality of Life for the purpose of this nursing concept paper is variable because it pertains to a â€Å"subjective experience†. Hence, it can not be measured with â€Å"object indicators.†Ã‚   Being the case, according to Skevington, studies show that the â€Å"best person to assess quality of life is arguably the individual himself† (Skevington, par. 4, 1999). When questions are asked to a patient and he, in turn, answers the questions, the medical professional likely gets a limited clinical success in the study of the patient’s history because of limited information.   He is unable to get the necessary data that may be of help in assessing the health condition of the patient.   Hence, there is a need to come up with a good quality-of-life measure that will enable health and interventions to be properly evaluated. The World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, in collaboration with the WHOQOL Group, designed an instrument called WHOQOL-100 that is used in â€Å"multinational clinical trials for the evaluation of quality-of-life outcomes during all types of health care interventions like surgery, counseling and medication.† (Skevington, par.1, 1999).  Ã‚   It is useful also for making cross-cultural function about perceived quality of life relating to health and at a one-to-one level, in improving communications between doctors and their patients in the consulting room (Skevington, par. 1, 1999). The WHOQOL has up come with such instrument and made it as comprehensive as possible to reach out to various global dimensions that are workable internationally. Moreover, it is intended for use by persons with chronic diseases, informal caregivers and people living in highly stressful situations. WHO defines health as a â€Å"state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity†.   On the other hand, the WHOQOL Group defines Quality of Life as â€Å"an individual’s perception of their position in life, in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live, and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns (Sousa).   It is so broad a concept that it affects the patient’s physical health, psychological state, level of independence, and social relationships with his environment in a very complex way.   In addition to this definition, WHOQOL Group has added the sixth domain to the list, which is â€Å"spirituality, religion, and personal beliefs.† (Skevington, par 5, 1999). Furthermore, the WHOQOL 100 is an instrument that is applied to heterogeneous cross-section of sick and well people in order to examine its internal consistency reliability, construct validity , and discriminant power (Skevington, par. 1999).. Concept of Quality of Life in Health Care The Quality of Life came about when the disciplines of sociology and psychology became an issue related to health care. It has emerged into a larger issue when technological advances were aimed at increasing life span. Quality of Life has become a means to guide a patient in deciding on whether to pursue a treatment or not for his or her ailment.   According to clinicians, Health-related Quality of Life is an appropriate focus for a patient who has a disease or who is ill, and whose aspects in life become health-related (Haas, p. 730, 1999). A)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Defining Attributes of Quality of Life. The Walker and Avant’s 1995 method of concept analysis of Quality of Life took note of the various characteristics or critical attributes recurring in the process of their studies and they are grouped according to four recurring themes.   The first theme is the â€Å"multi-dimensional and dynamic nature of the QOL.   Authors have stressed that QOL is a multi-dimensional concept considering that it is â€Å"based on values; is dynamic, ever changing and depends largely on the context in which it is measured† (Haas, p. 733, 1999). The second theme is that QOL includes an assessment.   In this case, the authors include words such as response, appraisal, measure, experience and assessment in defining and using QOL (Haas, p. 733, 1999).   The third theme is centered on the subjective nature of QOL. Grouped within this theme are words like perception, well-being, and satisfaction. (Haas, p. 733, 1999). The fourth and final theme recognizes the objective nature of QOL, with authors using â€Å"behavior, functioning, and environment as measures of QOL.† (Haas, p. 733, 1999). These defining attributes were sourced from the definitions and use of QOL. It mainly shows that QOL is indeed an individual’s current life circumstance. It further shows that it is multi-dimensional in nature and in being so, is based on values and is dynamic. It is also composed of both subjective and/or objective indicators. Finally QOL is subjectively measured by persons capable of self-evaluation.   (Haas, p. 733, 1999) (B) Congruence of the Concept with the Assumptions and Other Concepts within the Model/Theory. The QOL Model was formulated to provide a measure that takes into consideration both the components and determinants of health and well being that are consistent with the concept of Quality of Life. The QOL Model or Profile emphasizes on the person’s physical, psychological and spiritual functioning and his connections with his environments as well as opportunities for maintaining and enhancing skills (The Quality of Life Model, par 3, 2005). The Conceptual framework of the Quality of Life has three life domains which are aimed at providing a person to enjoy the more essential potentials of his life. (The Quality of Life Model, par 4, 2005) Each of the three domains has three sub-domains and they are as follows: (a)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Being pertains to who one is.   Its three sub-domains are: (1) Physical Being, which relates to a person’s or patient’s physical health, personal hygiene, nutrition, exercise, grooming and clothing, and general physical appearance; (2) Psychological Being, which relates to his psychological health adjustment, cognitions, feelings, self-esteem, self-concept and self-control; (3) Spiritual Being, which relates to his personal values, personal standards of conduct and spiritual beliefs. (The Quality of Life Model, par. 5, 2005) (b)  Ã‚   Belonging pertains to the person’s connections with his environment. Its three sub-domains are: (1) Physical Belonging, which relates to his connections with his home, work place/school, neighborhood and community; (2) Social Belonging, which relates to his connections with his intimate others, family, friends, co-workers, neighborhood and community; (3) Community Belonging, which relates to his connections with matters pertaining to adequate income, health and social services, employment, educational programs, recreational programs or community events and activities. (The Quality of Life Model, par 5. 2005) (c)  Ã‚  Ã‚   Becoming pertains to achieving personal goals, hopes and aspirations. Its three sub-domains are: (1) Practical Becoming, which relates to achieving personal goals in domestic activities, in work, in school or volunteer activities or seeing to health and social needs; (2) Leisure Becoming, relates to activities that promote relaxation and stress reduction; (3) Growth Becoming, relates to activities that promote the maintenance or improvement of knowledge and skill and adapting to change. (The Quality of Life Model, par. 5, 2005) Ferrans Conceptual Model of Quality of Life. Ferrans has developed a model based on the adoption of the individualistic ideology, which recognizes that quality of life depends on the unique experience of individuals. He maintains that the individual person is the only accurate judge of his quality of life because people differ in their perceptions and values. (Ferrans, par. 1, 1996)   This model uses qualitative methodology and has identified four domains of quality of life: health and functioning as psychological/spiritual, social and economic, and family. (Ferrans, par 1, 1996)   Patient data are analyzed in relation to these domains of quality of life. Researchers, physicians, policy makers adopt the Quality of Life concept as an instrument that tests the validity, reliability and effectiveness of different and relevant sub-domains for the purpose of evaluating the impact of medical interventions on the population (Apolone and Mosconi, p. 68, 1998). Since the concept is considered non-medical determinant, it is treated as confounder, a complementary way for effectiveness of care to a patient. This is because medicine still plays the major role in determining the final health outcome of a patient. (Apolone and Mosconi, p. 68, 1998) Since patients are the proper judge of their quality of life, there are ways to enhance the well-being of patients who may have a poor quality of life.   Studies show that the presence of positive feelings in patients is the most important feature of the kind of quality of life he has. Patients, with positive feelings most likely enjoy a pleasant quality of life than those who are in-patients and sick. A person has control of his emotions which can generally affect his state of mental being.   It is a matter of developing the positive attitude and containing oneself into thinking of a positive outlook in life.

Methods and Practices of Performance Appraisal

Methods and Practices of Performance Appraisal This chapter provides the basis for the development of this study. It will give a general overview of the relevant literature and research on performance appraisal and organizational commitment in general but with a lot of emphasis on appraisal session, supervisory behaviours during appraisal and employees satisfaction with performance appraisal and affective commitment. A brief outline of performance management, performance appraisal and organizational commitment will first be discussed as a sort of general foundation followed by some relevant aspects of performance appraisal, affective commitment and ending with a summary of the chapter. The justification is that it will facilitate the conceptualization of the variables that will be examined in this study, indicate their envisaged relationships and further provide the basis for their empirical evaluation. Although the performance appraisal session is a component of the whole performance appraisal system (Giles Mossholder, 1990) however, it is still a major part of the appraisal system since it is the only avenue for gathering employees opinions and other information (Roberts, 2002). Similarly, supervisory behaviours during an appraisal session has been indicated to be a major aspect which contributes to the effectiveness of performance appraisal session (Martin Bartol, 1986) hence some key concepts of performance appraisal session and supervisory behaviours will be applied and used to formulate the argument that there should be a positive relationship between performance appraisal satisfaction and certain supervisory behaviours during a performance appraisal session. Similarly, extant literature and research (Dessler, 1999; Paul Anantharaman, 2004) has indicated that using performance appraisals to develop employees may increase their affinity to the organization hence this review will elucidate the logic for attempting to establish a positive link between performance appraisal satisfaction and affective organizational commitment and the significance of such a relationship to organizations. 2.2 A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT In the late 1980s and 1990s, organizations started implementing combined practices aimed at building a culture of performance which involved using strategies that were believed to enhance employees input towards the overall success of the organization referred to as performance management (IPM, 1992). However the majority of these practices (e.g. goal setting, assessment and review) were already being used by organization but as individual practices (Armstrong Baron, 2005). Armstrong (1998) sees performance management as a combined and well planned method used to further improve the success of an organization by increasing employees performance and developing the abilities of teams and individual employees however Fletcher (1993a cited in Armstrong Baron, 1998) sees it as a method used by organizations to invent and share their vision with the employees by enabling them appreciate their own part towards achieving the organizations vision and in so doing help to manage and improve the performance of both the employees and organization whereas Hendry, Bradley Perkins (1997) believe it is an efficient method used to enhance the performance of individuals and teams to realize the goals of the organization. The definitions above indicate that performance management is a tool used by organizations to achieve organizational aims by effectively managing the performance of employees and the organization as a whole. Some features of performance management include: different forms of appraisals (e.g. 360- degree appraisal, peer appraisal, self appraisal); reward strategies (e.g. performance related pay, competence related, contribution related pay); coaching and mentoring; career management/ succession planning and personal development plans. 2.3 OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT According to Armstrong Baron (2005), the aim of performance management is to enhance the performance of employees and the organization by further improving good performance, having an idea of the visions of the organization, supporting individuals to achieve these aims and generally ensuring a conducive atmosphere for individual growth which will ultimately impact on the organization. Armstrong Baron, (1998) believe that the objectives of performance management could further be broken down to the following: A process which helps organizations to accomplish prolonged enhanced performance. It can act as a pillar of change towards building a more performance centred tradition. Improving employees motivation and commitment. Facilitating employee development, improving their work satisfaction and attaining their desired goals in a way that profits both employees and the organization. Strengthening team work and performance. Facilitating improved communication in the workplace amongst superiors and subordinates all year round due to continuous discussions. Affording the opportunity for employees to communicate their job desires and needs. Organizations assess the outcome of performance management by using opinions or attitude surveys of their employees, some factors used are: changes in employee attitude, motivation, productivity, achievement of financial target, changes in employees attitude, achievement of objectives, improved customer service, development of new skills and improved quality (Armstrong Baron, 2005). 2.4 DEFINITION OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Performance appraisal is the process used to assess employees performance often times against some agreed work goals to enable organizations take some decisions. Performance appraisal is a formal process of supplying employees with an unambiguous feedback based on their work performance (Carroll Schneier, 1982 cited in Dobbins, Cardy Platz Vieno, 1992) but can also occur in an informal and sometimes highly biased form in any organization (Fletcher, 1997). Performance appraisal is believed to have originated from American but has been modified to suit the UK market (see Beer et al, 1978). An effective performance appraisal should seek to understand why goals have been / not been achieved to throw more light on the employees capabilities and by so doing understand what training/ development the employee requires (Anderson, 1991). Several definitions of performance appraisal have been put forward and some of them are: An opportunity for the individual and those concerned with their performance most usually their line manager to get together to engage in a dialogue about the individuals performance, development and the support required from the manager (CIPD ,2009). Performance appraisal is, the formal assessment and rating of individuals by their managers at, usually, an annual review meeting (Armstrong, 2006, p.9). A performance appraisal is a way to regularly record an assessment of an employees performance, potential and development needs. The appraisal is an opportunity to take an overall view of work content, loads and volume, to look back on what has been achieved during the reporting period and agree objectives for the next (ACAS, p.3). Performance appraisal is the process of defining expectations for employee performance: measuring, evaluating and recording employee performance in relation to those expectations; and providing feedback to the employee. While a major purpose of performance appraisal is to influence, in a positive way, employee performance and development, the process also is used for a variety of other organisational purposes, such as determining merit pay increases planning future performance goals, determining training and development needs and assessing promotional potential of employees. (Bartol Martin, 1991 p.421 cited in Coates, 1994). Performance appraisal is also defined as, a term once associated with a rather basic process involving a line manager completing an annual report on a subordinates performance and (usually but not always) discussing it with him or her in an appraisal interview (Fletcher, 2001, p.473) he further stated that though this description still holds true in some organizations that performance appraisal is now a general term used to describe so many practices used by organizations to evaluate employees and develop their capabilities, enhance performance and distribute rewards which implies that the use to which performance appraisal is put could impact on both supervisory behaviours and employees satisfaction. 2.5 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Although some organizations sometimes use the expressions performance management and performance appraisal to mean one and the same, there are differences between them. Performance management is, a comprehensive, continuous and flexible approach to the management of organizations, teams and individuals which involves the maximum amount of dialogue between those concerned (Armstrong Baron, 2005, p.14) while performance appraisal which is narrower entails supervisors assessing and scoring their subordinates in an appraisal review. Performance appraisal plays an important role in the performance management system because it is the medium used to explain the goals and objectives of an organization, it is also the main tool used for employees performance assessment and development. It is believed that with the emergence of performance management with its broader outlook, that performance appraisal now has a fundamental task in a more incorporated and vibrant set of human resources systems which implies that performance appraisal can accomplish more than it could on its own (Fletcher, 1997). Armstrong Baron (2005) highlighted some idealised features that differentiate performance management from performance appraisal since it has been noted that the two terms are often confused with each other (Bevan Thompson, 1991). Performance management Performance appraisal Joint process through dialogue Top down assessment continuous review with one or more formal reviews Annual appraisal meeting Ratings less common Use of ratings Flexible process Monolithic system Focus on values and behaviours as well as objectives Focused on quantified objectives Less likely to be directly linked to pay Often linked to pay Documentation kept to a minimum Bureaucratic- complex paperwork Owned by line managers Owned by the HR department Fig. 1- source Armstrong Baron, 2005 p. 15 2.6 DEFINITION AND COMPONENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT The phrase, organizational commitment is gradually becoming a vital organizational terminology because there is an indication that it has a positive relationship with employee behaviours that encourage organizational retention and performance (Chalofsky Krishna, 2009). OReilly Chatman (1986) defines organizational commitment as the foundation of an employees psychological attachment to the organization whereas Porter et al (1974) states that organizational commitment is comprised of three major elements: (a) strong conviction in and acceptance of the organizations aims, (b) readiness to go the extra mile for the organization, and (c) a strong desire to retain organizational membership. Meyer Allen (1991) noted that notwithstanding numerous researches, that there has been a lack of agreement with definition of concepts used in measuring organizational commitment. Moreover, the various definitions of commitment seem to point to three general components hence to minimise the issue of construct definition, they put forward three components of organizational commitment: 1. Affective commitment- the employee wants to stay because of an attachment and desire to identify and be involved with the organization. 2. Continuance commitment- the employee stays with the organization because of the need to after considering the costs related to leaving the organization. 3. Normative Commitment- the employee feels obligated to continue with the organization. These three components reflect the fact that commitment is a psychological condition that typifies the nature of the relationship an employee will have with the organization hence will affect the employees decision to exit or continue with the organization. (Meyer Allen, 1991), however they have dissimilar impact on employees behaviour (Lee Bruvold, 2003). The present study will focus on affective commitment because a Meta analysis of various researches that have tried to establish a link between work outcome and organizational commitment established that affective or attitudinal commitment showed the strongest relationship (Randall, 1990). Moreover, from the description of the three components of organizational commitment, it can be deduced that an employee that has an affective commitment for the organization will most likely exhibit more positive attitude, be willing to go the extra mile, be less likely to leave because of his/her attachment to the organization. 2.6.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT The importance attached to organizational commitment could be attributed to the fact that present day organizations lay much emphasis on teamwork, empowerment, and flatter organizational structures thereby making it a pre requisite that certain acceptable behaviours are required from employees which are often referred to as organizational citizenship behaviour. These behaviours are discretionary contributions that are organizationally related, but are neither explicitly required nor contractually rewarded by the organization, yet contribute to its effective functioning, (Meyer Allen, 1997 p.34). Although organizational commitment may be associated with certain aspects of a flatter organization (e.g. team working and empowerment) as mentioned above, however, it does not just happen because an organization operates a less bureaucratic structure. Organizations employ different outlook of organizational theory example, a unitarist view will elicit a different type of commitment from a pluralist view since these two outlook will employ different management control and forms of employees management (see Perkins, 1998 p. 14). Similarly, Caldwell et al (1990) noted that variations amongst organizations with respect to the human resources policies in place affect employees attitudes and reactions, a statement also echoed by Perkins (1998). Studies have indicated that commitment can promote the type of behaviours that yield desirable organizational outcomes (Dessler, 1999). Some of positive outcomes attributed to organizational commitment include: a positive relationship with motivation and involvement (Stumpf Hartman, 1984), affirmation of positive affect and loyalty (OReilly Caldwell, 1980), enhancement of some portions of job performance (Angle Perry, 1981) and a negative relationship with absenteeism (Angle Perry, 1981). 2.7 BASIC METHODS AND PRACTICES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL Organizations differ in characteristics (e.g. management style, size, culture, technology and sector) which imply that they will most likely implement performance appraisal practice that they perceive will be suitable for them (Bretz et al, 1992). Similarly, Tolliday Zeitlin (1991) argues that the potential for performance appraisal with regards to its implications and definitions will be a consequence of the social and organizational stance of those who use them, however, an effective performance appraisal will be a gain for both the employees and the organization (Anderson, 1991). Some basic methods of performance appraisal according to ACAS (2008) include: Rating employees characteristics are rated on a scale ranging from outstanding to unacceptable. Comparisons with objectives employees are assessed based on how far they have met already agreed goals with supervisors. Critical incidents requires the supervisor to record employees positive and negative behaviour for a period of time. Narrative report the supervisor assesses the employees job performance using own words. Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales involves the use of a number of rating scales which are tailored to suit each job. Most UK organizations use appraisal of personality, appraising job related abilities and rating scales (e.g. forced distribution and behaviourally based rating scale) which are methods used for assessment and comparison appraisal while result oriented appraisal and competency based appraisal are methods use for motivation and development appraisals (Fletcher, 1997 2004). His classification was based on the two broad uses of performance appraisal which will be highlighted below. Although management by objective (MBO) is also used in UK (*ANDERSON) it is widely used in the US to appraise senior executives and professional employees while the trait based rating scale is used for more junior employees Bretz et al, (1992). 2.8 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL USES It has been stated that knowledge of the use to which performance appraisals is to be put is important to human resource development (Youngcourt et al, 2007) and essential to its design since different types of information may be required for different purposes (Cleveland, J.N., Murphy, K.R. Williams, R.E. (1989) and research has also shown that the use to which performance appraisal is put affects the rating process and results (Jawahar Williams, 1997; Ostroff, 1993). Organizations use performance appraisal to achieve numerous contradicting objectives (McGregor, 1957; Meyer, Kay French, 1965). However, some of the uses of performance appraisal are: taking reward decisions, performance improvement, employee motivation, improving communication between supervisors and subordinates, succession planning and as a formal assessment of inadequate performance (Fletcher, 1997). According to Youngcourt et al (2007) past literature/research (Cleveland, Murphy Williams, 1989, 2003) seem to point to the fact that there is a tendency for organizations to use appraisal to differentiate either among employees (the administrative use) or within employees (the developmental purpose). Cederblom (1982) also gave two broad classifications of performance appraisal use: counselling and development; evaluation and discussion of administrative decisions. Though it has been noted that appraisals can be put to multiple uses, the present study will use the two broad classifications listed above for ease of comparison with extant work. 2.9 A GENERAL SUMMARY OF PAST PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL STUDY AND LITERATURE Performance appraisals has received lots of attention from industrial and organizational psychologists (Nathan, Morhman Millman, 1991; Landy Farr, 1980) and most of these works especially the ones dealing with cognitive aspect of performance appraisal have been methodologically and conceptually sound (DeNisi, 1997 cited in Fletcher, 2001). Researchers have conceptualized rating instrument and process; characteristics of raters and ratees as a way of understanding cognitive aspect of performance appraisal but so far, have only been able to expound our knowledge of the rating formats (Landy Farr, 1980) yet, there is still no major positive impact on performance appraisal practice (Banks Murphy, 1985; Fletcher, 2001). There has been quite a number of review of extant literature and research on performance appraisal practice with their implication for future research (e.g. Levy Williams, 2004; Fletcher, 2001; Keeping and Levy, 2000; Arvey Murphy, 1998; Bretz, Milkovich Read, 1992; Cederblom, 1982). A brief summary of these reviews seem to indicate that researchers are still looking for ways of improving the practicality of performance appraisal process in organizations as stated by (Thorndike, 1949 cited in Bretz et al, 1992; Meyer, Kay French, 1965 cited in Fletcher, 2001; Kluger DeNisi, 1996; Fletcher, 1997 2001) but the direction so far shows that between 1950 and 1980, most research was dealing with ways to improve rating instruments used for appraisals which led to a call by Landy Farr (1980) for more studies on cognitive aspects of performance appraisal thereby resulting in a shift of attention in the early 1980s to a better understanding of the various behaviours exhibited by a supervisor during performance appraisal. The mid 1980s till late 1990s saw an increase in research dealing with how information is handled during performance appraisal (Arvey Murphy, 1998) which was brought to light by some researchers (e.g. Ilgen Favero, 1985; Dipboye, 1 985; Ferris Judge, 1991) when they noted that the social and situational factors affecting performance appraisal were being overlooked by researchers. In their review of extant performance appraisal research work of 1985 1990, (Bretz, Milkovich Read, 1992) writing from a US perspective noted that majority of these work were centred on supervisor/ subordinate personal qualities, psychometric issues, rating errors/accuracy, supervisor training, performance appraisal format, cognitive aspects of appraisal and feedback. They further stated majority of these work had taken place in the laboratory and had used students as respondents also, cognition has received the highest attention and even though it is quite understandable that researchers should focus a lot of attention on studying the rating aspects of performance appraisal since it entails difficult cognitive procedures, however, the performance appraisal process takes place in an applied social and political environment, hence it would be beneficial to assess the degree to which research is contributing to the performance appraisal process. This seems to be an echo of the call b y Banks Murphy (1985) that the huge focus on cognitive aspect of performance appraisal will most likely contribute to the widening gap between research and actual practice. Napier Latham (1986) noted that the lack of improvement in performance appraisal practice stems from the fact that researchers seem to focus on improving appraisal measurement rather than on the appraisal practicalities (Thorndike, 1949 cited in Bretz et al, 1992). Another review of existing study of performance appraisal from 1993 1998 carried out by Arvey Murphy (1998) further buttressed the issues raised in the Bretz et al (1992) review but Arvey Murphy also noted that research is now widening towards the notion of contextual aspect of job performance. Similarly, Fletcher (2001) writing from a UK perspective, while concurring with the views raised in the Bretz et al (1992) review also noted that there seems to be no considerable improvement in performance appraisal practice as most UK organizations indicate disappointment with their performance appraisal scheme which implies that performance appraisal not only yields unconvincing ratings but most likely is unsuccessful as an employee development and motivational tool as indicated by (Meyer, Kay French, 1965 cited in Fletcher, 2001). Keeping Levy, (2000), writing on performance appraisal reaction which is pertinent to the present work agrees with the views already noted by the studies above on performance appraisal practice in general but they further narrowed down their views to studies pertaining to appraisal reactions. They observed that performance appraisal effectiveness has been heavily researched with some of the work focusing on aspects like: appraisal frequency, faith in supervisor, participation, validity of ratings and employee reactions to performance appraisals. On the issue of appraisal reactions, they differentiated the various reaction measures that have received great deal of attention and they include: satisfaction, fairness, perceived utility, perceived accuracy but they pointed out that there seems to be some contradictions with measurements of reaction, concepts and the way some measures have been operationalized. They also noted that dependent variables should be of interest and use to human resource practice as indicated by Balzer Sulsky, (1990, cited in Keeping Levy, 2000) that most of the dependent variables so far used in extant studies are of little use to human resources practitioners while the important ones have so far been ignored by researchers. Cederblom (1982) had reviewed the appraisal session, another important area to the present study and stated that though some writers had indicated that there are some difficulties associated with an appraisal section that involves a joint discussion of development and salary, however most of these research had come up with inconclusive reports (e.g. Meyer et al, 1965; Cummings,1973 cited in Cederblom, 1982) thereby making it difficult to conclude on the noted difficulties, however some studies (e.g. Burke, Wetzel Weir, 1978 cited in Cederblom, 1982) indicated that certain discussion on reward during an appraisal session seems to increase employees satisfaction. Cederblom (1982) stated that there are some factors that have been shown to improve the effectiveness of a performance appraisal session which are: supervisors level of competence of employees job and performance; goal setting; supervisors support; encouragement of employees participation. 2.10 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SESSIONS The appraisal session involves the actual meeting of the supervisor and subordinate to discuss the subordinates past performance and possibly future goals, development and salary. It has been identified to be a key part of a performance appraisal system by contributing to its effectiveness since the appraisal session is the avenue for gathering employees opinion and other needed information Roberts (2002). There have been a number of researches on this area of performance appraisal (e.g. Burke Wilcox,1969; Greller, 1975; Burke at al, 1978; Fletcher, 2001; Asmub, 2008) however most of the studies have been centred on the appraisees experiences of the appraisal session though attention is now being directed towards the supervisors experience (Burke et al, 1978) Nathan, Morhman Millman (1991) noted that there are some shortcomings with most of the past researches as most of the them seem to have overlooked the interpersonal perspective in which appraisal occurs (Wexley Klimoski, 1984 cited in Nathan et al, 1991) and instead focused on pointing out the problems with supervisors even though they are the motivational impartial factors of the performance appraisal procedure and thus directing attention on how to reduce these errors with enhanced rating scale and training (Hogan, 1987, p.364). Their study substantiated the importance of the need for good interpersonal relationship as employees participation, the standard used to assess the employee and review of issues that are vital to the employees development are all affected by the type of supervisor/subordinate relationship. Similarly, Finn Fontaine (1984) put forward that supervisors and employees should relate together to categorize the major work attitudes that are very crucial to the appraisal which may likely involve the use of a well structured job analysis that will not only form the basis for measuring past performance but also form the foundation for building future performance. The organizational culture which affects means and manner of its communication will affect performance appraisal discussion (Maroney Buckely, 1992) since employees attitude is a function of their convictions which is guided by the organizations communication means and hierarchy (Nystrom Starbuck, 1984 cited in Maroney Buckely, 1992). Some guidelines given by Armstrong Baron (2005) for the appraisal session are: 1. Supervisors should come prepared by going through a list of the pre set goals and probably their record of employees performance for the year. They need to give consideration to the likely reasons that could have resulted in the employees high/low performance, changes that may have occurred between the last appraisal and the intended one. It is also advisable for employees to come prepared with their own records so they can contribute effectively. 2. The environment should be informal to allow for an open and honest discussion with less conflict. 3. The session should be carried out according to plans made earlier but should also allocate enough time for employees contribution. 4. Supervisors should ensure they give a positive, frank, and merited feedback which will motivate the employee especially when they are commended for high achievement. 5. The employees should have ample time to contribute so they can reveal the issues they are encountering and this also will make them feel the appraisal session was fair. 6. Allowing the employee to self appraise will afford the opportunity of seeing things from an employees perspective and will also form part of the appraisal discussion. 7. Employees performance that has been stated accurately should be the focus of the appraisal session rather than the supervisors personal view of the employee. 8. It is also advisable that both appraisee and appraiser jointly review probable causes of good/poor performance rather than it being just the supervisors views. 9. The supervisor as much as possible should stick to facts rather than discuss issues that will come as a surprise to the employee. 10. The agreed goals should be measurable and there should be a plan or discussion on how to achieve them and supervisors should ensure the session ends positively. The overview of performance appraisal uses; methods and practices; past performance appraisal research and appraisal session above is indicative of the fact that performance appraisal use, the discussion during an appraisal session (e.g. goal setting, feedback, participation, relationship between the supervisor and employee, rating score, salary and development discussion) will likely have an effect on employees satisfaction with the appraisal. Hypothesis 1: employees will be satisfied with their performance appraisal session when they have good interpersonal relationship with the supervisor, actively participate, adequate and constructive feedback, favourable rating and the appraisal discussion includes salary and development. 2.11 ISSUES AND CRITICISMS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS Fletcher Williams (1992) noted that there have been issues regarding the use of performance appraisal which have lingered for years and a survey of some UK organizations (IRS, 2005, no 828, p.9) seem to buttress this point as most of the employees stated that there are issues in the way and manner performance appraisals are being delivered in organizations which they attributed to lack of training for line managers on how to develop effective performance appraisals, too much use of paperwork (IRS, 2005, no 828, p. 9). Similarly, Stroul (1987) stated that both management and employees are resentful of the mandatory yearly performance appraisal process (Stroul, 1987). Other issues noted with performance appraisal include Anderson (1993) also identified a number of problems related with performance appraisal: Classifying the standards that will be used for assessing performance. Gathering correct and sufficient data employee performance data. Managing conflicts between supervisors and subordinates. Defensive behaviour of most employees. The various issues noted above coupled with dissatisfaction with performance appraisal as indicated by organizations (Mount 1983; Stroul, 1987; Fletcher, 2001) has led to criticisms from several authors. Deeming (19